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Welcome to the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change data explorer. This platform allows users to engage with our findings and explore the latest global report data at country, regional and income group level. The data visualisations are free to use and share, and we encourage you to include them in your work.
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1.1
Health and Heat
- 1.1.1 Exposure of Vulnerable Populations to Heatwaves
- 1.1.2 Heat and Physical Activity
- 1.1.3 Change in Labour Capacity
- 1.1.4 Rising Nighttime Temperatures and Sleep Loss
- 1.1.5 Heat-Related Mortality
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1.2
Health and Extreme Weather Events
- 1.2.1 Wildfires
- 1.2.2 Drought
- 1.2.3 Extreme Precipitation
- 1.2.4 Sand and Dust Storms
- 1.2.5 Extreme Weather and Sentiment
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1.3
Climate Suitability for Infectious Disease Transmission
- 1.3.1 Dengue
- 1.3.2 Malaria
- 1.3.3 Vibrio
- 1.3.4 West Nile
- 1.4. Food security and Undernutrition
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2.1
Assessment and Planning of Health Adaptation
- 2.1.1 National Assessments of Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation for Health / 2.1.2 National Adaptation Plans for Health
- 2.1.2 City-Level Climate Change Risk Assessments
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2.2
Enabling conditions, Adaptation Delivery, and Implementation
- 2.2.1 Climate Information for Health
- 2.2.2 Air Conditioning: Benefits and Harms
- 2.2.3 Urban Green Space
- 2.2.4 Global Multilateral Funding for Health Adaptation Programs
- 2.2.5 Detection, Preparedness, and Response to Health Emergencies
- 2.2.6 Climate and Health Education and Training
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2.3
Vulnerabilities, Health Risk, and Resilience to Climate Change
- 2.3.1 Vulnerability to Severe Mosquito-Borne Disease
- 2.3.2 Lethality of Extreme Weather Events
- 2.3.3 Migration, Displacement, and Rising Sea Levels
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3.1
Energy Use, Energy Generation and Health
- 3.1.1 Energy Systems and Health
- 3.1.2 Household Energy Use
- 3.1.3 Sustainable and Healthy Road Transport
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3.2
Air Pollution and Health Co-benefits
- 3.2.1 Mortality from Ambient Air Pollution
- 3.2.2 Household Air Pollution
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3.3
Food, Agriculture, and Health
- 3.3.1 Emissions from Agricultural Production and Consumption
- 3.3.2 Diet and Health Co-Benefits
- 3.4. Tree Cover Loss
- 3.5. Healthcare Sector Emissions
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4.1
The Economic Impact of Climate Change and its Mitigation
- 4.1.1 Economic Losses due to Climate-Related Extreme Events
- 4.1.2 Costs of Heat-related Mortality
- 4.1.3 Loss of Earnings from Heat-Related Labour Capacity Reduction
- 4.1.4 Costs of the Health Impacts of Air Pollution
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4.2
The Transition to Net Zero-carbon, Health-supporting Economies
- 4.2.1 Employment in Renewable Energy and Fossil Fuel Industries
- 4.2.2 Compatibility of Fossil Fuel Company Strategies With the Paris Agreement
- 4.2.3 Stranded Assets from the Energy Transition
- 4.2.4 Country Preparedness for the Transition to Net Zero
- 4.2.5 Production-based and Consumption-based Attribution of CO2 and PM2.5 Emissions
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4.3
Financial Transitions for a Healthy Future
- 4.3.1 Clean Energy Investment
- 4.3.2 Funds Divested from Fossil Fuels
- 4.3.3 Net Value of Fossil Fuel Subsidies and Carbon Prices
- 4.3.4 Fossil Fuel and Green Bank Lending
- 5.1. Media Coverage of Health and Climate Change
- 5.2. Individual Engagement in Health and Climate Change
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5.3
Scientific Engagement in Health and Climate Change
- 5.3.1 Scientific Articles on Health and Climate Change
- 5.3.2 Scientific Engagement on the Health Impacts of Climate Change
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5.4
Political Engagement in Health and Climate Change
- 5.4.1 Government Engagement
- 5.4.2 Engagement by International Organisations
- 5.5. Corporate Sector Engagement in Health and Climate Change
Climate change impacts, exposure and vulnerability
A changing climate has profound implications for human health, with more frequent heatwaves and extreme weather events, changing patterns of infectious disease, and the exacerbation of existing health challenges around the world. Indicators in this section track how these impact on human health.

1.1.1 Exposure of Vulnerable Populations to Heatwaves
Heatwaves represent an acute health hazard, especially for the elderly; very young children; and those living with underlying chronic cardiovascular, respiratory, or kidney diseases. They also increase the risk of adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, and exacerbate adverse neurological conditions. This indicator tracks the exposure of vulnerable age groups (those less than 1 year old and over-65) to heatwave days. For the purpose of this indicator, heatwaves were defined as a period of two or more days where both the minimum and maximum temperatures are above the 95th percentile of the local climatology (defined on the 1986–2005 baseline).
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, the number of heatwave days that infants and adults over 65 were exposed to, reached a new record high of an average 13.8 heatwave days per person
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Hybrid gridded demographic data for the world, 1950-2020 0.25° resolution.
3. WorldPop Age and Sex Structure Unconstrained Global Mosaic data for 2000–2020. School of Geography and Environmental Science U of SD of G and GU of LD de GU de N, and Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) CU. 2018.
4. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
5. A global downscaled age structure data set for assessing human impacts of climate change, 1970-2100, 2021. Briggs, DJ.
CAVEATS
As two distinct sources were used for population data to obtain estimates of both the spatial and temporal characteristics there may be some inconsistencies between the pre and post 2000 values.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
The input data for this indicator have been improved and extended for the 2024 report. The indicator defines a heatwave as a period of two or more days where both the minimum and maximum temperatures are above the 95th percentile of the local climatology (defined on the 1986–2005 baseline). The indicator also aims to capture the health effects of both direct heat extremes (i.e., caused by high maximum temperatures) and the problems associated with lack of recovery (i.e., caused by high minimum temperatures) over persisting hot periods. Data inspection has shown that increasing heatwave length can result in fewer discrete heatwave events as they merge into single long events – this is therefore better captured by the person-days metric.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Jonathan Chambers and Zélie Stalhandske
1.1.2 Heat and Physical Activity
Regular exercise provides physical and mental health benefits, and walking and cycling can contribute to decreasing transport-related GHG emissions and air pollution when acting as substitutes to fossil fuel-based transportation (Indicators 3.1.3 and 3.2.1). However, heat stress can reduce the willingness to engage in physical activity, and increase the health risks for those exercising outdoors. This indicator uses ambient temperature, humidity, and solar radiation to estimate the number of hours during which light outdoor physical activity (for example, walking) presents a risk of heat stress.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, people were exposed, on average, to a record 27·7% more hours per year during which ambient heat posed at least moderate heat stress risk if undertaking light outdoor exercise, than in 1990–1999.
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
3. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
The estimation of heat stress risk for a given exercise category may not be uniform across the entire population, and risk estimates in particular may be different for older adults, young children, pregnant women, and those living with disabilities or chronic diseases. A more detailed interpretation model of heat effects on exercise would incorporate individual factors such as age, health status, physiology, and clothing.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
The methodology for this indicator has been updated from the 2023 report of the Lancet Countdown. The estimation of moderate–, high–, and extreme–risk hours incorporates the international boundaries for each country based on the Detailed Boundaries ADM0 shapefiles provided by the WHO, as opposed to those provided by the National Identifier Grid packaged with the UN–adjusted Gridded Population of the World. Hourly 2–metre temperature and 2–metre dew point temperature data were retrieved from European Centre for Medium–Range Weather Forecasts ERA5 climate reanalysis datasets. Heat stress risk was estimated from these climate variables in accordance with the 2021 Sports Medicine Australia (SMA) Extreme Heat Policy, which stratifies estimated heat stress risk based on ambient temperature and relative humidity.The number of daylight hours in each ERA5 grid cell with a recorded temperature and humidity combination that exceeded at least the threshold for “moderate”, “high”, and “extreme” heat stress risk for Risk Classifications 1 and 3 were tabulated for each year from 1990 to 2023. Population weighting was performed by multiplying the number of daylight hours per year that at least exceeded each threshold by the population, as provided by the GPWv4.11 (UN) WPP Adjusted population count dataset,13 in the respective grid cell.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Troy J Cross, Dr Samuel H Gunther, Prof Ollie Jay, Dr Jason KW Lee
1.1.3 Change in Labour Capacity
Heat exposure outdoors or in non–cooled indoor environments puts workers’ health at risk. Heat exposure also reduces labour productivity and harms the livelihoods of workers and their dependents, particularly when affecting access to quality nutrition, healthcare, housing, or health-supporting services. This indicator has two distinct parts. The first monitors the number of outdoor workers (a population at risk) with estimates produced by WHO staff. The second part tracks potential work hours lost because of heat exposure, by considering temperature, humidity, solar radiation (via wet–bulb globe temperature), and the typical metabolic rate of workers in specific economic sectors, through well-established epidemiological models.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
A record-high 512 billion potential work hours were lost in 2023, 49% above the 1990-1999 average.
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
3. International Labour Organization International Statistics Database (ILOSTAT). ILO.
4. Global, regional, national, and subnational occupational exposure to solar ultraviolet radiation for 195 countries/areas, and the global, regional, and national attributable burden of non-melanoma skin cancer for 183 countries, 2000-2019: a systematic analysis from WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury. 2023. Pega F, Momen NC, Stricher KN et al.
5. United Nations. World Population Prospects 2022.
6. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
The distribution of agricultural, construction manufacturing, and service sector workers used are country averages, applied evenly to the population of each grid cell, thus not accounting for sub-national variation in industry sector.
The numbers and percentages of workers captures those in the formal economy for regions and countries, only someof the surveys capture the data on workers in the informal economy – unpaid work, to which women often dedicate more time than men, is not fully accounted for.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator monitors potential hours lost by linking Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (including temperature, humidity and solar radiation) with the amount of energy expended by workers through the typical metabolic rate of workers both for indoor and outdoor work. It then combines this calculation with the proportion of people working over 15 years old in each of the four sectors in each country to estimate the potential work hours lost per year. To calculate potential work hours lost by sector, each sector is assigned to a metabolic rate and to sun, or indoors/shade conditions. To calculate the percentage of the working-age population who were outdoor workers for the year 2023, point prevalences of the proportion of the population occupationally exposed to solar ultraviolet radiation were sourced for the years 2000, 2010 and 2019 and modelled at the level of the individual cohort defined by sex and five-year age group applying a linear function.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
1) Chris Freyberg, Dr Bruno Lemke, Matthias Otto
2) Dr Natalie C. Momen, Dr Frank Pega
1.1.4 Rising Nighttime Temperatures and Sleep Loss
Sleep of adequate duration and quality is important for good human physical and mental health. High ambient temperatures are associated with worse sleep quantity and quality. With climate change resulting in nighttime temperatures rising faster than daytime temperatures in many world regions, the risk of adverse health outcomes from poor sleep quality is rising globally.
This indicator –new to this year’s report– tracks the impact of suboptimal nighttime temperatures on sleep loss. It combines the global functional sleep response to nighttime temperature identified in a multi-country sleep study, with nighttime temperature data, and it statistically controls for individual-level demographic and environmental factors, including air conditioning access.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Sleep hours lost due to high temperatures increased by 5% between 1986-2005 and 2019-2023, reaching a record 6% in 2023
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation monthly averaged data on single levels from 1959 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
3. Rising temperatures erode human sleep globally. One Earth. 2022. Minor K, Bjerre-Nielsen A, Jonasdottir SS, Lehmann S, Obradovich N.
CAVEATS
As with other statistical samples, the indicator’s analytic approach assumes that the estimates obtained in the underlying global study of tens of thousands of individuals are likely to apply to the individuals not within the sample. This means that the original data may be more likely to include wealthier persons who can afford fitness trackers and less likely to include the world’s poorest than a truly representative sample, potentially underestimating the impact. Additionally, the relationship between ambient temperatures and human sleep may change in the future as individuals adapt and/or decompensate to altered future temperatures. An increased availability of air conditioning in the future, for example, might alter the global response curve. It is also possible, given the spatial resolution of the indicator, that areas with high air conditioning/fan penetration already reflect some expected adaptation particularly at the higher end of the temperature distribution.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks the relationship between human sleep and warmer nighttime temperatures employing estimates from published research that monitors fitness tracking bands to measure over ten billion sleep observations across over 40,000 individuals living in 68 countries around the world between 2015–2017. The indicator estimates percentage change in annual total number of hours of sleep lost globally due to warmer than opitmal nighttime tempertature relative to the 1986-2005 baslien average in this metric.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Kelton Minor and Dr Nick Obradovich
1.1.5 Heat-Related Mortality
The rising temperatures are increasing the risk of heat-related morbidity and mortality. While cold-related deaths currently exceed heat-related deaths, heat-related deaths are expected to exceed cold-related deaths in a high-warming scenario. The first part of this indicator monitors exposure to health-threatening days and compares it with the number of days exceeding this threshold which would have been expected without anthropogenic climate change. The second part estimates the change in heat-related mortality, by combining the change in demographics and temperature in an epidemiological model.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Because of climate change, people faced, on average, a record 50 more days of health-threatening heat in 2023
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
3. Input data set: Historical, gridded population. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP).
4. United Nations. World Population Prospects 2022.
5. 2019 Global Burden of Disease Study, 2020. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.
6. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
Using a single relative minimum mortality temperature (MMT) provides a convenient benchmark that can be applied everywhere. However, empirical studies find MMTs that differ slightly from city to city. Furthermore, the analysis assumes that communities are adapted to the climate of 1986–2005 that was used to compute the MMT. The analysis for heat-related mortality assumes the exposure-response function is constant across all locations and times. It does not capture changes in response to heat exposure that might happen over time, as a result of acclimation and adaptation. Not capturing these changes could result in an over-estimation of heat-related deaths in later calendar years.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report and was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator monitors the growing heat-related mortality risk tracking days in which temperatures exceeded health safe levels and comparing to a counterfactual climate with no anthropogenic climate to attribute how many of these were made more likely by anthropogenic climate change. Minimum mortality temperature is conservatively defined as the 84.5 percentile of the 1986-2005 daily average for this indicator. The second part of this indicator applies the exposure-response function and optimum temperature described by Honda and colleagues (2014) to the daily maximum temperature exposure of the population older than 65 years to estimate the attributable fraction and therefore the deaths attributable to heat exposure compared to the baseline 1991-2000.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
1) Dr Andrew Pershing
2) Dr Zhao Liu
1.2.1 Wildfires
Higher temperatures and more frequent and intense droughts linked to climate change increase the risk of wildfires, which affect physical and mental health directly through burns and smoke exposure, and indirectly through infrastructure damage, service disruption, and loss of assets. The first part of this indicator tracks the exposure to the meteorological risk of wildfire and to active wildfires by overlaying population data with the Copernicus Emergency Management Service fire danger indices, and with satellite observations of active wildfires. The second part models the mean annual exposure to wildfire smoke, combining satellite data and atmospheric modelling.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The average number of days with exposure to very high or extremely high fire danger was higher in 2019-2023 than 2003-2007 for 124 (66%) countries
DATA SOURCES
1. Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS), 2024. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Fire Information for Resource Management System.
2. Global 1-km Cloud Cover, 2023. EarthEnv.
3. Fire Danger Indices Historical Data. Copernicus Emergency Management Service, Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
4. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
5. Hybrid gridded demographic data for the world, 1950-2020 0.25˚ resolution, 2022. Chambers, J.
6. Global 1-km Downscaled Urban Land Extent Projection and Base Year Grids by SSP Scenarios, 2000-2100, 2021. Gao J, Pesaresi M.
7. Daily surface concentration of fire related PM2.5 for 2003-2021, modelled by SILAM CTM when using the MODIS satellite data for the fire radiative power, 2022. Finnish Meteorological Institute. Hänninen R, Sofiev M, Uppstu A, Kouznetsov R.
8. ECOCLIMAP: a global database of land surface parameters at 1 km resolution. Meteorological Applications. Champeaux JL, Masson V, Chauvin F.
CAVEATS
The fire danger index is calculated based on meteorological parameters, representing potential fire risk not actual fire events. Actual fire events can be influenced through exacerbation or attenuation by anthropogenic factors, such as human-induced land use and land cover changes, industrial-scale fire suppression, and human induced ignition. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer observations are limited by cloud obscuration and sensitivity of the instrument which can limit the fires observed if there are clouds or the fire is too small.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses model-based wildfire danger, satellite-observed exposure, and modelled exposure to wildfire fine particles, accounting for cloud cover in the detection of wildfire spots. It incorporates atmospheric modelling to track exposure to wildfire smoke (PM2.5). It has been improved for the calculation of fire danger risk, extended satellite-based wildfire population exposure estimates with cloud corrections and a precise filtration of non-fire hot spots reported by MODIS. Climatological wildfire danger is estimated by combining daily very high or extremely high wildfire danger (a fire danger index score of 5 or 6) with climate and population data. Human exposure to wildfires, in person-days (with one person-day being one person exposed to a wildfire in one day) is tracked using satellite and population data.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
1) Dr Yun Hang, Prof Yang Liu, Qiao Zhu
2) Risto Hänninen, Dr Rostislav Kouznetsov, Prof Mikhail Sofiev
1.2.2 Drought
Anthropogenic climate change increases the likelihood and severity of droughts, which can affect vector- and water–borne disease transmission; jeopardise water supply, food security, and livelihoods; and disrupt power generation and the transport of goods via inland waterways. This indicator uses the Standardised Precipitation–Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) to monitor the intensity and length of droughts on all land areas.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 48% of the global land area was affected by at least one month of extreme drought – the second-highest level since 1951
DATA SOURCES
1. Global Standardised Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index Database, 2023. Beguería, S et al.
CAVEATS
This indicator only captures the impacts of climate change on meteorological drought, but does not capture the impacts of climate change on hydrological or agricultural drought. It also does not measure the direct relationship between a drought and the population living in, or depending on, drought-affected areas.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator measures changes in the number of months of extreme meteorological drought, using the 6-monthly Standard Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index, compared with a 1986-2005 baseline. It allows for both the intensity and the duration of droughts to be taken into account. It captures the influence of both altered precipitation patterns, and of potential evapotranspiration on drought severity.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Marina Romanello and Maria Walawender
1.2.3 Extreme Precipitation
Climate change alters the hydrological cycle, increasing the frequency and intensity of both droughts and extreme precipitation over most land areas. Extreme precipitation is associated with adverse physical and mental health outcomes. When leading to floods, it can increase the risk of injury or drowning, infrastructural damage, environmental degradation, waterborne disease outbreaks and disruption to social, ecological and economic life support systems, affecting lives and livelihoods. This indicator –new in the 2024 report– tracks changes in extreme precipitation events, defined as those exceeding the 99th percentile of 1961-1990, using ERA Land data.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2014-2023, 61% of all global land saw an increase in extreme precipitation events, compared to the 1961-1990 average
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation-Land (ERA5-Land). Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
CAVEATS
The ERA5 precipitation reanalysis products — including ERA Land — do not directly assimilate any rain-gauge data, relying instead on ECMWF’s Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) Cy41r2 to assimilate observations from short-range forecasts.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator monitors changes in extreme precipitation over all land globally, tracking the occurrence of global daily precipitation extremes and changes in relative frequency. The indicator employs gridded, high resolution daily precipitation data from the reanalysis data source (ERA Land) and uses this data to track both the change in the average frequency of extreme precipitation events per decade over global land area in the past 30 years compared to the precipitation baseline of 1961-1990, and the average percentage of global land that has had an increase in the occurrence of extreme precipitation from this historical baseline.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Kelton Minor and Dr Nick Obradovich
1.2.4 Sand and Dust Storms
Drought, poor land management and increased wildfire-burned areas are increasing the risk of sand and dust storms (SDS). The major component of particulate matter (PM) during a SDS is the mineral (also known as crustal) fraction. Mineral dust contributes to PM10 air pollution, exposure to which increases the risk of asthma, cardiovascular disease, and premature death. Transported mineral dust can also spread soil–dwelling pathogens, and cause transportation accidents through reduced visibility. This indicator uses a state–of–the–art multi–model reanalysis ensemble to estimate PM10 emissions from arid and semi-arid regions (referred to hereafter as dust-PM10), and overlays it with population data to estimate human exposure.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
On average during 2018-2022, 3.8 billion people were exposed to mean annual concentrations of PM10 from sand and desert dust exceeding WHO guideline levels, up by 31% from 2003-2007
DATA SOURCES
1. CAMS-RA, 2022. Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service Reanalysis.
2. Naval Research Laboratory Navy Aerosol Analysis and Prediction System Reanalysis (NAAPS-RA), 2024. US Naval Research Laboratory.
3. Modern-Era Retrospective analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (NASA MERRA-2), 2022. National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
4. System for Integrated modeLling of Atmospheric composition (SILAM). Finnish Meteorological Institute.
5. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
CAVEATS
Model prediction is limited by the physical mechanisms and quality of input parameters, satellite observations assimilated are limited by temporal coverage (once or twice a day) and cloud cover, and ground observations by spatial coverage.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses a state–of–the–art multi–model reanalysis ensemble to estimate PM10 emissions from arid and semi-arid regions (referred to as dust-PM10), and overlays it with population data to estimate human exposure.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Sara Basart, Dr Daniel Tong, Dr Andres Uppstu, Dr Peng Xian
1.2.5 Extreme Weather and Sentiment
Extreme heat can affect human mental health outcomes across a continuum of severity, from subclinical to life–altering.This indicator tracks the effect of heatwaves, as per indicator 1.1.2, on the sentiments of billions of geolocated expressions across millions of global Twitter users.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, extreme heat events cumulatively worsened human sentiment by a record 53% more than the baseline average effect between 2006-2022
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Geolocated Tweets collected via the Twitter Streaming Application Programming Interface, 2015-2022.
3. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
CAVEATS
While sentiment is related to mental wellbeing, it should not be confused as a measure of it and should be interpreted as an indicative proxy of the mental implications of extremes of heat. Countries that did not have Twitter broadly available to the public, such as China, were underrepresented despite the addition of Mandarin tweets this year. Furthermore, geo-tagged tweets constituted approximately 2% of all tweets and thus may be somewhat limited in their generalisability due to opt-in geo-localization. The vast majority of the Twitter observations were posted in wealthy countries who have greater access to adaptive amenities and potentially underestimates the sentiments of those most disproportionately exposed to some of the hottest conditions in poorer socioeconomic contexts.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator monitors expressed sentiment on Twitter, using billions of geolocated tweets collected between 2015 and 2022. It deploys a multivariate ordinary least squares fixed effects model to estimate the annual effect of heatwaves (as defined in indicator 1.1.2) and extreme precipitation (exceeding the 99th percentile of local daily precipitation), on online sentiment expression. It compares sentiment expression between heatwave days and non-heatwave days and between extremely wet days and non-extremely wet days.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Kelton Minor, Dr Nick Obradovich
1.3.1 Dengue
The global burden of dengue has increased sharply over the last two decades, mostly driven by ever more suitable climatic conditions, increased human mobility and urbanisation. Over five million cases of dengue were reported globally in 2023. Transmission is largely driven by changing distributions of mosquito vectors of genus Aedes, primarily Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti. This indicator uses an updated and validated mechanistic model incorporating data on temperature, rainfall, daylight duration, and human population density to assess dengue transmission dynamics.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The climatic suitability for the transmission of dengue by Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti increased by 46.3% and 10.7% respectively between 1951–1960 and 2014–2023
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation-Land (ERA5-Land). Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. ISIMP3a protocol. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project.
3. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
These results are not based on case data, they represent the predicted R0 and the potential for outbreaks. This indicator does not include the component of human mobility and social dynamics which are proven to be crucial for predicting disease transmission. Due to unavailability of sufficient data on interactions between climate and physiology of other Aedes species, they are absent from the transmission suitability models even though they are proven to be important for dengue transmission.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024.
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses an updated and validated mechanistic model incorporating data on temperature, rainfall, daylight duration, and human population density to assess population dynamics of Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti and dengue transmission dynamics. The indicator reports the predicted R0 as an indicator of potential for outbreaks.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Pratik Singh, Dr Henrik Sjödin, Prof Joacim Rocklöv
1.3.2 Malaria
Malaria is widely recognised as a climate-sensitive infectious diesase due to the climate sensitivity observed in both the vector, Anopheles mosquitoes, and the Plasmodium parasites. With temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity all climate factors that influence the abundance and feeding cycle rate of Anopheles mosquitoes and temperature also driving the development rate of Plasmodioum parasties within the mosquito vectors. This indicator tracks the length of the transmission season (LTS) for the two malaria-causing parasites that pose the greatest threat to human health (Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum), transmitted by Anopheles mosquitos.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Between 1951-1960 and 2014–2023, an extra 17.1% of the global land area became suitable for the transmission of P. falciparum; and an extra 21.8% for the transmission of P vivax.
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation-Land monthly averaged data from 1951 to present. Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store. Accessed in 2023.
2. Elevation Data, 2020. University of Washington Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean.
3. Copernicus Global Land Service: Land Cover 100m: collection 3: epoch 2019: Globe, 2020. Buchhorn, M et al., Copernicus Global Land Service
4. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
These results of this indicator are based on climatic data, not malaria case data. The malaria suitability climate thresholds used are based on a consensus of the literature. In practice, the optimal and limiting conditions for transmission are dependent on the particular species of the parasite and vector and control efforts that might limit the impact of these climate changes on malaria or conversely, the climate suitability may enhance or hamper control efforts. The inclusion of land suitability assumes a constant distribution of land cover classes as reported in 2015. However, dynamics in malaria transmission are highly correlated to changes in land use patterns, such as deforestation and urbanisation.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024.
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity thresholds to track the length of the transmission season (LTS) for the two malaria-causing parasites that pose the greatest threat to human health (Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum), transmitted by Anopheles mosquitos. The length of the transmission season, measured as the number of months suitable for malaria transmission per year from 1940 to 2023, was calculated on a grid with a resolution of 0.25° x 0.25°. Climate suitability was based on empirically derived thresholds of precipitation, temperature, and relative humidity for P. falciparum and P. vivax.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Alba Llabrés- Brustenga, Prof Rachel Lowe
1.3.3 Vibrio
Changes in the temperature and salinity of water bodies are affecting the transmission potential of water-borne diseases. Pathogenic non-cholera Vibrio bacteria can cause severe skin, ear, and gastrointestinal infections and life-threatening sepsis. They are transmitted through direct contact with contaminated brackish waters, or through the consumption of contaminated seafood. As water temperatures rise, they become more suitable for Vibrio transmission.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The environmental suitability for Vibrio transmission reached a record high in 2023, with 88,348 km of coastline with waters suitable in 2023 – up by 14·8% from the previous record in 2018
DATA SOURCES
1. Global Ocean OSTIA Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Reprocessed dataset between 1982-2023.
2. Mercator Ocean Reanalysis, 2024. Copernicus Marine Service.
3. AWI-CM-1-1-HR and CNRM-CM6-1-HR sea surface temperatures and sea surface salinity from CMIP6 (2015-2100) SSP126 and SSP370 experiments.
4. ISIMP2b (2006-2100). The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project.
5. The World Factbook. CIA.
6. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project. ISIMP3b Bias Adjustment. 2022.
CAVEATS
The results are derived on the basis of suitable SST and SSS conditions only, and do not include other potentially important drivers (e.g., globalisation), environmental predictors of pathogenic Vibrio infections (e.g., cholorphyll-a, turbidity) or disease case data. Locally suitable SSS conditions will occur in some regions based on, for example, variation in local rainfall and river runoff, which can make these regions sporadically suitable for Vibrio infections but that is not captured in this indicator.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024.
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses a mechanistic model that incorporates data on sea surface temperature and salinity, to monitor the suitability for Vibrio transmission in coastal water. Vibrio spp. are globally distributed aquatic bacteria that are ubiquitous in warm estuarine and coastal waters with low to moderate salinity therefore the focus is on mapping environmental suitability for pathogenic Vibrio spp. in coastal zones globally (<10km from coast).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Jaime Martinez-Urtaza, Prof Jan C. Semenza, Dr Joaquin A. Trinanes
1.3.4 West Nile
West Nile virus is a mosquito-transmitted virus that can cause lethal neurological disease in humans. Transmission is maintained in a cycle between birds and mosquitoes (primarily of the genus Culex) from which it can spill over into human and other mammal populations. The virus is found across the globe, with its range expanding in some world regions.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The temperature suitability for the transmission of West Nile virus has increased by 4·3% from 1951–60 to 2014–2023
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation-Land (ERA5-Land). Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Transmission of West Nile and five other temperate mosquito-borne viruses peaks at temperatures between 23oC and 26oC. eLife 2020. Shocket MS, Verwillow AB, Numazu MG et al.
CAVEATS
The relative R_0 model underlying the indicator does not allow interpretation as a threshold parameter for outbreaks or an absolute measure of secondary infections such as the classical basic reproduction number. The indicator is limited to three key WNV vectors and their spatial distribution. The indicator isolates the temperature-dependence of the basic reproduction number via mosquito-virus traits, however, impacts of climate change beyond these relationships such as impacts of changing precipitation patterns or variations in WNV host populations (impacting host abundance, host species composition, and host community competence) are currently not considered.
This indicator was included as a new sub-indicator in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
Based on the response of vector–pathogen traits to temperature derived from experimental studies for three primary Culex West Nile virus vectors, this indicator tracks changes in the relative basic reproduction number of West Nile virus (WNV–R0).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Julian Heidecke, Prof Joacim Rocklöv, Dr Marina Treskova
Food security and Undernutrition
Climate change is exacerbating food insecurity and undernutrition by reducing crop yields, labour capacity, and access to water and sanitation; disrupting supply chains; and compromising marine resources through higher coastal sea surface temperatures, reduced oxygenation, ocean acidification, and coral reef bleaching. Increased food insecurity contributes to malnutrition, which harms health and development. The impacts are particularly acute for subsistence farmers and Indigenous Peoples, for whom food availability is particularly sensitive to local climatic changes. The risk is particularly important for Indigenous children, who experience higher levels of malnutrition compared with non-Indigenous children, with severe implications for their health throughout the lifecourse.HEADLINE FINDINGS
The higher frequency of heatwave days and drought months in 2022, compared to 1981–2010, was associated with 151 million more people experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity across 124 countries
DATA SOURCES
1. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Reanalysis 5th Generation-Land (ERA5-Land). Copernicus Climate Change Service Climate Data Store.
2. Food Insecurity Experience Scale. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
3. ISIMIP3b. The Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project.
4. Ocean Reanalysis System 5 Global Ocean Reanalysis Monthly Data from 1958 to Present, 2023. C3S CDS.
5. ORAS5 global ocean reanalysis, 2023. Copernicus Climate Change Service.
6. Status of Coral Reefs of the World, 2020. Souter D, Planes S, Wicquart J, Logan M, Obura D, Staub F.
7. IUCN Oceans and Coasts, 2024. International Union for Conservation of Nature.
CAVEATS
For the food insecurity component of the indicator, it is possible that there is recall bias in the survey data and additional bias may have been introduced to interviews during the pandemic because interviews were conducted by phone instead of in-person visits.
Fish production data were used as a surrogate for fish consumption, which is not a completely accurate assumption, however currently there is no comprehensive alternative source of data for all the investigated countries. There is also a lack of information and data in the available databases such as FAO on fish species composition of the captured and farmed fish products. This could, in turn, lead to some concerns about the methodological approach used to calculate ω3 intake.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks the impact of climate change and income on the incidence of food insecurity using a panel data regression with coefficients that vary over time. The concept of climate change is operationalised as number of heatwave days and the frequency of droughts during the four major crop growing seasons in each region used.
The second part of this indicator monitors the growing risk to marine yields by tracking sea surface temperature variations in coastal waters across 148 territories monitoring the deterioration of major coral reef sites and the consequent decreased per capita consumption of capture-based fish.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Shouro Dasgupta, Prof Elizabeth J.Z. Robinson
Prof Maziar Moradi-Lakeh, Dr Fereidoon Owfi, Dr Mahnaz Rabbaniha, Prof Meisam Tabatabei
Adaptation, Planning, and Resilience for Health
Indicators in this section track how communities, health systems, and governments are understanding the health risks of climate change, the strategies and resources they are deploying, and how adaptation and resilience measures are being implemented globally.

2.1.1 National Assessments of Climate Change Impacts, Vulnerability and Adaptation for Health / 2.1.2 National Adaptation Plans for Health
Within the COP26 Health Programme in 2021, countries, territories, and areas (hereafter members) committed to build climate-resilient health systems. This included the commitment to conduct climate change and health vulnerability and adaptation (V&A) assessments to inform Health National Adaptation Plans (HNAPs) and facilitate access to climate change funding for health. The Alliance for Transformative Action on Climate and Health (ATACH), led by the WHO, supports members in meeting these commitments.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
As of December 2023, 61% of the WHO Member States that committed to building climate-resilient health systems through the 26th Conference of the Parties (COP26) Health Programme reported having completed a vulnerability and adaptation assessment, up from 17% the year before. As of December 2023, 52% of WHO members that committed to building climate-resilient health systems through the COP26 Health Programme reported having developed an HNAP, up from just 6% one year before.
DATA SOURCES
1. World Health Organization. Alliance for action on climate change and health (ATACH).
2. 2021 World Health Organization Health (WHO) and Climate Change Global Survey Report, 2021. WHO.
CAVEATS
The survey sample is not a representative sample of all countries as this survey was voluntary. However, the inclusion of 95 countries despite being conducted during a global pandemic demonstrates substantial global coverage.
Data were pulled and are accurate as of January 2024.
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator draws on the 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) Health and Climate Country Survey, which was completed by 90 member states and non-member territories with representation from all 6 WHO regions as a baseline for the COP26 commitments with updates on the progress until 2022 coming from regional and country reporting through The Alliance for Transformative Action on Climate and Health (ATACH). It tracks the development of national health and climate change assessments and completion of a health national adaptation plan.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum
2.1.2 City-Level Climate Change Risk Assessments
Home to 56% of the world’s population, cities have a major role to play in protecting health amidst growing climate change risks. This indicator uses data from the CDP (formerly Carbon Disclosure Project) to report on city-level assessments of climate change risks. In 2023, of the 979 cities responding to the climate risk assessment module, 937 (96%, 2% higher than 2022) reported having completed, being in the process of conducting, or planning to conduct within two years, city-level climate change risk assessments.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 937 (96%) of 979 cities reported having completed or expecting to soon complete city-level climate change risk assessments
DATA SOURCES
1. Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) Annual Cities Survey, 2023. CDP.
CAVEATS
This is a self-reported survey, non-compulsory survey as such data provided may be subjective and response rates can fluctuate, with low uptake in certain areas, particularly the Middle East.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator draws on data from the Carbon Disclosure Project annual Cities Questionnaire, assessing the number of global cities that have undertaken a city-wide climate change risk or vulnerability assessment and the reported climate-related health impacts and vulnerabilities of these cities.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Karyn Morrisey
2.2.1 Climate Information for Health
Climate data and information services are crucial for establishing climate-informed public health surveillance, early warning, and early response systems, which are vital for effectively anticipating and responding to climate-related health risks. Establishing these systems requires close collaboration between meteorological and health services.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Among World Meteorological Organization (WMO) members, only 23% of Ministries of Health reported having public health surveillance systems that integrate meteorological information.
DATA SOURCES
1. Country Profile database, 2024. World Meteorological Organization.
2. 2023 State of Climate Services: Health. WMO-No. 1335. Geneva, 2023.
3. 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) Health and Climate Change Global Survey Report, 2021. WHO.
CAVEATS
The current data source from WMO only considers climate services provided by NMHS. It is unclear the degree to which other providers, such as academic institutions and research projects, private sector products, products from other Ministries, or regional and global products and services are being used, in proportion to services made available by NMHS. The open questionnaire can be updated at any time by WMO members, therefore the figures reported here may change over the year. As each country may update their profile information at different moments in time, snapshots do not reflect progress for any given year but rather information provided until a certain date.
The current questionnaire does not record the number of WMO members that do not provide climate services to the health sector and as the data is self-reported by countries it may therefore include reporting bias.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
The number of World Meteorological Organization (WMO) national meteorological and hydrological services (NMHS) providing climate services to the health sector is calculated based on self-reported information provided by NMHS through the Country Profile Database Integrated questionnaire. The questionnaire is one of the main sources of information to the WMO Country Profile database and is open all year round for WMO members to update their profile information. Reported data reflects answers to Question number 7.6 of this questionnaire: Please indicate which user communities/sectors your NMHS provides with climate products/information and estimate the extent to which these products are used to improve decisions. Human Health is one of multiple sectors which can be chosen.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Joy Shumake-Guillemot, Dr Yasna Palmeiro Silva
2.2.2 Air Conditioning: Benefits and Harms
Air conditioning (AC) is an effective technology for reducing heat exposure. However, it is expensive and energy-intensive, overwhelms energy grids on hot days, and can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and the urban heat island effect. Therefore, while AC can be a suitable option for vulnerable individuals if powered by renewable energy and used alongside passive and low-energy cooling solutions, it often represents a maladaptive response. This indicator draws on International Energy Agency (IEA) data on AC usage at a more granular geographical level than in previous years. It also builds on studies on the protective effect of AC against heat-related mortality, using data from Indicator 1.1.5 to estimate heat-related deaths of people over age 65 potentially saved by AC use.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Greenhouse gas emissions from air conditioning use increased 8% from 2016 to 2021; while 48.4% of Very High HDI country households had AC in 2021, only 4.7% of those in Low HDI countries did
DATA SOURCES
1. Data direct from International Energy Agency, 2024.
CAVEATS
There were a number of limitations to the estimate of number of heat-related deaths averted by air conditioning in the 65-and-older population, such that this is considered to be a ballpark estimate that will need considerable refinement in future years.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator provides annual estimates for 2000–2021 for proportion of households with air conditioning and heat-related deaths averted by air conditioning among people 65 years of age or greater for the world. The International Energy Agency (IEA) provided data on proportion of households with air conditioning for most countries to be aggregated to regional level.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Robert Dubrow, Dr Lingzhi Chu
2.2.3 Urban Green Space
Increasing equitable access to safe, adequately designed and quality urban green spaces can help reduce the negative health impacts of climate change, reducing heat exposure and flood risk, while offering physical and mental health co-benefits by improving air quality, and offering spaces for exercise, social interaction, and connection with nature. While the expansion of urban green spaces needs to be undertaken with care to avoid potential unintended harms (like providing habitats for disease vectors, limiting cooling by reducing air flow, or introducing allergenic pollens), expanding urban green space at scale remains a measure that could increase resilience of urban populations in the face of climate change.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Between 2015 and 2023, the proportion of urban centres with at least moderate levels of greenness remained constant, at 28%.
DATA SOURCES
1. Urban Centre Database. Global Human Settlement Programme, European Commission, Joint Research Centre.
2. Gridded Population of the World Version 4, 2021. Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
3. Landsat database. US Geological Survey and National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
4. Present and Future Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Maps at 1-km Resolution. Sci Data 2018. Beck HE, Zimmermann NE, McVicar TR, Vergopolan N, Berg A, Wood EF.
CAVEATS
This indicator does not provide information on quality or type of green space, nor on its accessibility. In tracking urban areas as defined by the Global Human Settlement Program, this indicator does not focus on administrative city boundaries, but rather on effective urban developments. Missing values from the GHS or Landsat data due to cloud cover or other factors limit the generalisability of the findings.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator performs a population-weighted average of Landsat’s Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to estimate greenspace exposure for 1,041 urban centres (larger than 500,000 inhabitants) across 174 countries. Green space is detected through remote sensing of green vegetation, making use of the satellite-based NDVI.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Patrick Kinney, Dr Jennifer D. Stowell
2.2.4 Global Multilateral Funding for Health Adaptation Programs
Sustainable and just funding is essential to enable health-supportive climate adaptation and health system resilience, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. In support of this, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) serves the Paris Agreement to operationalise financial support to the so-called “Least Developed Countries,” making it a key financial mechanism to support a just transition. This indicator tracks funding allocated by the GCF to health-related adaptation projects, and the funding reported by members of the ATACH in support of health adaptation and resilience.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, the Green Climate Fund (GCF) approved adaptation projects with potential health benefits for US$ 423 million – up by 137% from 2021
DATA SOURCES
1. Portfolio Dashboard, 2024. Green Climate Fund.
CAVEATS
Considering only the Green Climate Fund, this indicator does not capture all climate funding. It is likely to represent a good indicator of climate change funding trends for multilateral funding, however it is possible other funds show different trends.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks funding allocated by the GCF to health-related adaptation projects, and the funding reported by members of the ATACH in support of health adaptation and resilience. Data were collected from the GCF Project Portfolio and the data related to the reported funding for climate and health projects by ATACH members were obtained through an update of baseline data (2012 WHO Health and Climate Change Global Survey).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Louis Jamart, Dr Ana-Catarina Pinho-Gomes, Dr Yasna Palmeiro Silva
2.2.5 Detection, Preparedness, and Response to Health Emergencies
Climate-related health risks, particularly related to infectious diseases, require robust health emergency preparedness and response systems to reduce the risk of outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics. This indicator uses data from the e-SPAR tool to monitor the self-reported level of implementation of the legally-binding International Health Regulation (IHR)’s core capacity 7 (health emergency management), and –an improvement this year–capacity 3.2 (financing for public health emergency response).
HEADLINE FINDINGS
From 2022 to 2023, 48 out of 185 (26%) WHO member states reported an increase in the implementation of health emergency management capacity, while 54 (29%) reported a decrease.
DATA SOURCES
1. International Health Regulations Annual Reporting, 2023. Global Health Observatory Repository, World Health Organization.
2. International Health Regulations State Party Self-Assessment Annual Report (SPAR) database, 2024. World Health Organization.
CAVEATS
IHR monitoring questionnaire responses are self-reported, and the responding countries differ from year to year. The core capacities tracked by this indicator are not specific to climate-driven risk changes, and they capture potential capacity – not action. Finally, it does not measure the quality of surveillance, nor the effectiveness of emergency response plans.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator monitors the implementation of the International Health Regulation core capacities on health emergency management tracked through the World Health Organization annual monitoring questionnaire. The survey is a checklist of 35 indicators specifically developed to monitor the development and implementation of 15 IHR capacities. This method of estimation calculates the proportion of attributes reported to be in place in a country.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum, Dr Yasna Palmeiro Silva
2.2.6 Climate and Health Education and Training
Public health professionals play a crucial role in developing and implementing health-promoting adaptation and mitigation interventions. However, the integration of climate change education and training is largely not mandated in public health curricula, leaving many public health professionals ill-prepared for this purpose.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 70% (196) of 279 public health education institutions worldwide reported providing education in climate and health
DATA SOURCES
1. Data from survey responses provided by 279 degree-granting public health institutions between October 2023–March 2024.
CAVEATS
In this first-year survey, an exploratory census approach was adopted, however, the overall response rate was low, with only 22% of institutions responding from 81 countries. Among participating partner networks, fewer institutions were identified in countries with a low or medium Human Development Index (HDI) compared to those with a high or very high HDI. Moreover, institutions in countries with a low HDI exhibited lower response rates. Importantly, because the survey relies on voluntary participation, results may be biased towards responses from institutions already providing climate and health education and training, who may be more motivated to participate.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator builds on an international survey of degree-granting public health education institutions to assess the current state of climate and health education and training among them. To enable global participation and dissemination of the survey instrument, the Global Consortium on Climate and Health Education (GCCHE) partnered with the Global Network for Academic Public Health, which consists of eight regional public health associations, representing over 550 public health schools from 105 countries. Responses to the survey in 2023 were received from 279 public health education institutions.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Cecilia Sorensen, Dr Ying Zhang
2.3.1 Vulnerability to Severe Mosquito-Borne Disease
Dengue incidence is growing globally, driven by increasingly favourable climatic conditions, population mobility, urbanisation, and susceptibility to circulating serotypes (indicator 1.3). An estimated 40,000 individuals die annually from severe dengue. However, adequate medical care and early intervention can reduce the fatality rate below 1%. This indicator captures relative vulnerability to severe dengue.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The Very High HDI country group was the only group in which vulnerability to severe Aedes-borne disease increased between 1990-1999 and 2014-2023, with a 5.4% rise.
DATA SOURCES
1. Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 Reference Life Table, 2022. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.
2. Urban Population. World Development Indicators, World Bank Group.
CAVEATS
HCAQ values have been updated from 2020 to 2023 by linearly extrapolating yearly estimates from 2019 data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. The indicator is extrapolated to country level, no estimations at subnational level to differentiate vulnerability between rural and urban settings have been done. This extrapolation does not consider COVID-19 effect on communicable diseases.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator captures relative vulnerability to severe dengue by combining increased susceptibility from urbanisation, and coping capacity from improved health-care access and quality.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Jan C. Semenza, Dr Yasna Palmeiro Silva
2.3.2 Lethality of Extreme Weather Events
Under a changing climate, extreme weather events are increasing in frequency, intensity, and duration, threatening the health, wellbeing, and survival of individuals globally. However, the implementation and community uptake of health early warning systems may reduce the risk of the most severe health outcomes and death. This indicator reports the mortality rates of disasters associated with floods and storms for countries that replied to the 2021 WHO Health and Climate Change Global Survey.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The mortality of extreme weather events decreased by 73% in countries with climate-informed health early warning systems (HEWS), but only by 21% in countries without HEWS in 2014-2023 compared to 2000-2009
DATA SOURCES
1. EM-DAT: The International Disaster Database. Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.
2. 2021 World Health Organization Health (WHO) and Climate Change Global Survey Report, 2021. WHO.
CAVEATS
There is a possible bias in missing some disaster events because of under-reporting. Similarly, there are likely biases in how countries report both the number of deaths and people affected. Numbers of deaths may not include mortality from the cascading risks of natural disasters that occur as a result of longer causal chains from the hazard. Estimates of the numbers of people affected have different biases for different countries because of how the concept of “affected people” is defined.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator combines data registered in the EM-DAT database with data from the 2021 WHO Health and Climate Change Survey Report230 to explore the relationship between mortality rates associated with disasters involving floods or storms, and the implementation of climate-informed HEWS. The change in mortality for countries with HEWS level reported was also assessed by HDI country group. Poisson regression models were fitted to evaluate statistical significance of the observe changes in mortality.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Dominic Kniveton, Dr Yasna Palmeiro Silva
2.3.3 Migration, Displacement, and Rising Sea Levels
Global mean sea level increased by 0·20m between 1901 and 2018 and is projected to rise between 0·28–1·88m by 2100 (relative to 1995-2014), with major local variations. Sea level rise (SLR) can lead to permanent inundation, episodic flooding, coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, vector-borne and waterborne disease risk, and disrupted coastal livelihoods, with resulting adverse physical and mental health impacts. Using land elevation and population data, this indicator estimates that 157·3 million people were living less than 1m above sea level in 2023, and therefore at risk of exposure to rising sea level – up 11% from 2010.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 157·3 million people were living less than 1 metre above current sea levels.
DATA SOURCES
1. New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding. Nat Commun 2019, Kulp SA, Strauss BH.
2. Hybrid gridded demographic data for the world, 1950-2020 0.25˚ resolution. 2022. Chambers J.
3. Evolving Understanding of Antarctic Ice‐Sheet Physics and Ambiguity in Probabilistic Sea‐Level Projections. Earths Future, 2017. Kopp RE, DeConto RM, Bader DA, et al.
CAVEATS
This indicator does not consider relative sea-level change due to the additional impacts of glacial-isostatic adjustment and delta subsidence. Estimates of population exposure to GMSLR vary according to datasets, timeframes, emission and socioeconomic scenarios, and analytical method. While SLR-related hazards could potentially displace people living in sites of coastal risk, population exposure to SLR is not a proxy indicator for population displacement.
Attributing movement or immobility to climate change or climate change impacts is not straightforward, and attributing health outcomes to movement or immobility is not straightforward
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses a bathtub model, overlaying future Global Mean Sea Level Rise (GMSLR) of 1m with coastal elevation value grid-cells to delineate areas of potential inundation and current global population distribution grid-cells to delineate populations living in areas exposed to absolute GMSLR of 1m. In the first step, the Coastal Digital Elevation Model (CoastalDEM) dataset was used to categorise inundated grid-cells under 1m of GMSLR. In the second step a gridded population dataset was overlaid to estimate population exposure values. These grid-cells were then matched with country boundaries using the Global Administrative Areas (GADM) Dataset (version 4.0.4). Grid-cell level data were then aggregated to country level (i.e. national population numbers exposed to 1m of GMSLR).
The second part of this indicator looks at policies identified across 40 countries that connected climate change and migration.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Sonja Ayeb-Karlsson, Dr Shouro Dasgupta, Prof Ilan Kelman, Prof Celia McMichael
The health benefits of the response to climate change
Tackling climate change could be the greatest global health opportunity of the 21st century. Many of the interventions required to mitigate and adapt bring enormous benefits for human health and wellbeing in the form of cleaner air, healthier diets, and more liveable cities. Indicators in this section track the world’s efforts to mitigate climate change, and the health benefits of this response.

3.1.1 Energy Systems and Health
With 67% of global GHG emissions from fossil fuel combustion, preventing the most dangerous climate change scenarios requires structural changes in the energy sector. In addition to emissions, the extraction and use of fossil fuels pose myriad health impacts throughout its life cycle. Drawing on data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) to track mitigation in the energy sector, this indicator onitors carbon intensity of the energy system and global CO2 emissions from energy consumption by fuel type.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Global CO2 emissions from the energy system reached an all-time high in 2023, 1.1% above 2022
DATA SOURCES
1. CO2 Emissions From Fuel Combustion: CO2 Indicators, 2023. International Energy Agency.
CAVEATS
International Energy Agency data are generated using both direct input from national governments and modelling. As such, while they represent the best available data on national CO2 emissions from fuel, they are subject to caveats which vary by energy commodity and country.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks the carbon intensity of the energy system, both at global and regional scales, expressed as the CO2 emitted per terajoule of the total primary energy supply from 1971-2020 and global CO2 emissions from energy combustion by fuel in GtCO2 from 1972-2020. This indicator also reports on progress towards a global phase-out of coal, tracking the total primary energy supply from coal and coal’s share of total electricity generation. Finally, this indicator tracks electricity generation and the share of total electricity generation from all low-carbon sources (nuclear and all renewables, including hydro) and renewables (wind and solar, excluding hydro and biomass).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Harry Kennard, Dr Shih-Che Hsu
3.1.2 Household Energy Use
Household energy use is a key determinant of health and is linked to economic development, however, almost 2.3 billion people still use dirty fuels and technologies for cooking. The use of dirty fuels for cooking represents a substantial health hazard in lower HDI countries, especially exposing women and young children to high levels of air pollution. This indicator uses IEA data to track household energy use by fuel source and underscores the opportunity of tackling energy poverty by increasing access to reliable, healthy, renewable energy, particularly in the most underserved countries.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Shares of harmful biomass energy use in homes have decreased minimally, from 32% in 2016 to 30% in 2021; remaining at around 92% in Low HDI countries
DATA SOURCES
1. World Extended Energy Balances, 2023. International Energy Agency.
2. Data on cooking fuels provided directly by the WHO.
CAVEATS
The data from the International Energy Agency (IEA) on residential energy flows and energy access provide an indication of both the access to electricity and the proportion of the different types of energy used within the residential sector, providing a suggested picture on how access and use might be interacting. IEA data are generated using both direct input from national governments and modelling. As such, while they represent the best available data on national CO2 emissions from fuel, they are subject to caveats which vary by energy commodity and country.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator draws on data from the IEA extended global residential modelling to monitor the sources of energy used in people’s homes, using WHO guidance to assess what fuels are “clean”.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Luciana Blanco-Villafuerte, Prof Ian Hamilton, Prof Stella Hartinger, Dr Harry Kennard
3.1.3 Sustainable and Healthy Road Transport
Road transport contributes around 16% of global CO2 emissions. Transitioning to zero GHG emission transport systems is therefore critical to tackle climate change. The shift to electric vehicles (EVs), while also reaching net zero-GHG electricity supply, is important in this transition, particularly when other limitations exist to the use of public transport and door-to-door transport modes are needed (for example, in the case of disabled people or those with mobility impairment).
HEADLINE FINDINGS
From 2016 to 2021, the share of road transport from electricity increased by only 0.19 percentage points
DATA SOURCES
1. World Extended Energy Balances, 2023. International Energy Agency.
2. World Population Prospects 2022. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
CAVEATS
This indicator captures change in total fuel use and type of fuel use for transport, it does not capture shifts in modes of transport used. In particular, it does not capture walking and cycling for short trips which can yield substantial health benefits through increased physical activity. Alongside the fossil fuel combustion pollutants, tyre wear accounts for an estimated 3-7% of airborne PM2.5 particulates worldwide.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator captures change in total fuel use and type of fuel used for transport.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Harry Kennard, Dr Melissa Lott
3.2.1 Mortality from Ambient Air Pollution
In the transition to a Net Zero future, countries can reap major public health benefits from prioritising interventions that reduce exposure to air pollution. This indicator combines the well-established GAINS atmospheric model with information of activity in emitting sectors, to produce validated estimates of anthropogenic PM2.5 air pollution, and estimate the associated mortality. In an improvement from previous years, it incorporates new concentration–response functions (CRFs) recently published, resulting in more attributable deaths than in previous years.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Deaths attributable to PM2.5 from fossil fuel combustion decreased 6.9% from 2.25 million in 2016 to 2.09 million in 2021
DATA SOURCES
1. World Extended Energy Balances, 2015. International Energy Agency.
2. World Energy Outlook 2021 and World Energy Outlook 2022. International Energy Agency.
3. International Fertiziler Association Database, 2022. International Fertiziler Association.
4. World Population Prospects 2022. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
5. Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 Particulate Matter Risk Curves, 2021. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.
CAVEATS
The indicator relies on model calculations which are inherently uncertain. The resolution of approximately seven to ten km is deemed appropriate for urban background levels of PM2.5 but may underestimate exposure in case of strong local PM2.5 increments. The meteorology year is fixed to 2015. Uncertainty in the shape of integrated exposure-response relationships (IERs) make the quantification of health burden inherently uncertain.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator models the premature deaths caused by air pollution from individual economic sectors, combining bottom-up emission calculations with atmospheric chemistry and dispersion coefficients and then applying this to population data and PM2.5 exposure-response relationships. New concentration-response functions (CRFs) were taken from updated analysis which takes a meta-analysis of cohort studies and applies a fusion model to the log-linear function relating to PM2.5 exposure with mortality. It also highlights the contribution to premature deaths from coal across all sectors.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Gregor Kiesewetter, Dr Jessica Slater, Laura Warnecke
3.2.2 Household Air Pollution
Despite efforts to increase access to clean energy under the Sustainable Development Goal 7,293 2.4 billion people worldwide still use dirty fuels and inefficient technologies to meet their household energy needs, leading to high concentrations of indoor air pollution, and to other health harms from energy poverty. This indicator uses a Bayesian hierarchical model to estimate the deaths attributable to PM2.5 household air pollution (HAP) by source of emission in 65 countries (42% of which are Low, 26% Medium, 28% High, and 5% Very High HDI countries).
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Indoor PM2.5 derived from to the burning of solid household fuels resulted in 2.3 million deaths across 65 countries in 2020
DATA SOURCES
1. Reducing Global Air Pollution: The Scope for Further Policy Interventions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 2020. Amann M, Kiesewetter G, Schöpp W et al.
2. World Energy Outlook 2021, 2021. International Energy Agency.
3. Global Anthropogenic Emissions of Particulate Matter including Black Carbon. Atmos Chem Phys, 2017. Kilmont, Z et al.
4. Earth Exchange Global Daily Downscaled Projections (NEX-GDDP). National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
5. Global Household Air Pollution (HAP) database. World Health Organization.
6. Global Burden of 87 Risk Factors in 204 Countries and Territories, 1990–2019: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019, 2020. GBD 2019 Risk Factors Collaborators.
7. Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 Results Tool. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation.
CAVEATS
Indoor air pollution is complex and impacted by a number of factors including housing characteristics (e.g., ventilation, kitchen locations, window in kitchen, roofing materials) which are not typically captured in all the monitored data. Another challenge concerns the measured/monitored household air pollution data (e.g., studies included in the WHO database). More specifically: rather limited number of households monitored in each study; each study uses different monitoring technology to collect the data; and data collected from different measurement periods as well as different analytic methods used for data processing in each study.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses a Bayesian hierarchical model to estimate the deaths attributable to PM2.5 household air pollution (HAP) by source of emission in 65 countries (42% of which are Low, 26% Medium, 28% High, and 5% Very High HDI countries).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Michael Davis, Shih-Che Hsu, Dr Nahid Mohajeri, Dr James Milner, Dr Jonathon Taylor
3.3.1 Emissions from Agricultural Production and Consumption
Actions in the agricultural sector – a major contributor to GHG emissions and other environmental degradation – are critical to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement. This indicator combines data from production and trade of agricultural products with their GHG emission intensities, to estimate GHG emissions from agricultural products available in each country, excluding those from induced deforestation.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Global agricultural emissions increased by 2.8% from 2016 to 2021. Red meat and dairy contributed to 53% of agricultural emissions in 2021
DATA SOURCES
1. FAO Statistical Yearbook 2023 – World Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
2. Combining livestock production information in a process-based vegetation model to reconstruct the history of grassland management. Biogeosciences, 2016. Chang J, Ciais P, Herrero M et al.
3. Groundwater depletion embedded in international food trade. Nature, 2017. Dalin C, Wada Y, Kastner T, Puma MJ.
4. Greenhouse gas emissions intensity of global croplands, 2017. Carlson, KM et al.
5. Tracing distant environmental impacts of agricultural products from a consumer perspective. Ecological Economics, 2011. Kastner T, Kastner M, Nonhebel S.
CAVEATS
This indicator at present only considers the emissions associated with food production and does not take into account emissions associated with food transport and processing, storage and decomposition, use change and deforestation, it does consider emissions from cultivation of organic soils (such as peatland). This indicator does not account for emissions associated with land conversion to agriculture (such as deforestation) but does consider emissions form cultivation of organic soils (such as peatland).
For livestock, data on stock numbers has been extracted from FAO database, however, some data is missing for some years, most notably Somalia (missing data 2000–2011) for non-dairy cattle.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator combines data from production and trade of agricultural products with their GHG emission intensities, to estimate GHG emissions from agricultural products available in each country, excluding those from induced deforestation. GHG emissions from agricultural production and consumption incorporates numerous fruits, vegetables, nuts, pulses and legumes and other crops. While these crops tend to have much lower GHG emission intensity than animal derived products, their inclusion provides a fuller picture of the agricultural commodities used in the global food system.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Carole Dalin, Dr Harry Kennard
3.3.2 Diet and Health Co-Benefits
Imbalanced diets with excessive intake of red and processed meat and low intake of high-quality plant-based foods are not only major drivers of greenhouse gas emissions (indicator 3.3.1), but also increase health risks. This indicator monitors the deaths attributable to unhealthy diets and inadequate caloric consumption that could be avoided through the transition to diets associated with lower GHG emissions, through a comparative risk assessment.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Between 2016 and 2021, the burden of diet-related diseases has increased from 141 to 144 deaths per 100,000 people (+3%), including increases from 14 to 16 deaths per 100,000 attributable to red meat intake (+9%).
DATA SOURCES
Key data sources include:
1. Food Balance Sheets. Food and Agriculture Organization.2. Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention, 2011. Gustavsson, J et al., Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
3. Global Dietary Database 2017: Data Availability and Gaps on 54 Major Foods, Beverages and Nutrients among 5.6 million Children and Adults from 1220 Surveys Worldwide, 2021. Miller, V et al.
4. Food Groups and Risk of Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke and Heart Failure: A Systematic Review and Dose-response Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies, 2019. Bechthold, A et al.
5. Food Groups and Risk of Colorectal Cancer, 2018. Schwingshackl, L et al.
6. Food Groups and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies, 2017. Schwingshackl, L et al.
7. Body-mass Index and All-cause Mortality: Individual-participant-data Meta-analysis of 239 Prospective Studies in Four Continents, 2016. The Global Mortality Collaboration.
Full data sources can be found in the report appendix.
CAVEATS
The relative risks used are all supported by statistically significant dose-response relationships in meta-analyses and the existence of plausible biological pathways, however, there are caveats related to nutritional epidemiological studies, such as potential measurement error of dietary exposure. Evidence quality was graded with NutriGrade as moderate or high-quality evidence and the Nutrition and Chronic Disease Expert Group and World Cancer Research Fund graded the evidence for a causal association of 10 of the 12 risk factors as probable or convincing.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator estimats baseline food consumption by adopting estimates of food availability from the FAO’s food balance sheets, and adjusting those for the amount of food wasted at the point of consumption. We disaggregated this proxy for food consumption by age and sex by adopting the same age and sex-specific trends as observed in dietary surveys.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Marco Springmann
Tree Cover Loss
Trees and forests are crucial carbon sinks and biodiversity reservoirs. They can also be a source of food, medicine, and knowledge, especially for Indigenous Peoples. Poor tree cover and forest conservation exacerbates climate change, and increases the risk of forest fires, zoonotic diseases, and allergies. Understanding the patterns of tree cover loss is vital for supporting climate strategies and public health. This indicator uses satellite data to track the loss of vegetation.HEADLINE FINDINGS
Between 2016 and 2022, the world lost almost 182 million hectares of forest cover, 5% of the global tree cover.
DATA SOURCES
1. Global Forest Watch Open Data Portal, 2021. Hansen, University of Maryland, Google, United States Geological Survey, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
2. Tree Cover Loss by Driver. The Sustainability Consortium, World Resources Institute, and University of Maryland.
CAVEATS
The model does not include disturbances such as insect outbreaks, wind and ice storms, flooding, or rivers changing course. There was low model accuracy for the commodity-driven deforestation class in Africa, with much of this deforestation misclassified as shifting agriculture. In northern forests, especially in Russia, distinguishing between drivers was challenging in areas where wildfires spread through previously logged areas or where logging occurred after a fire event. The study did not map changes in forest conditions over time in landscapes dominated by shifting agriculture, nor did it differentiate primary from secondary forest clearing within this land-use class.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses satellite data to track the loss of vegetation five meters or taller, in areas with at least 30% tree cover density. As such, it covers the loss of forests, open woodlands, trees in agricultural settings and urban areas, and small patches of trees. To identify the various types of tree cover loss, such as deforestation, forestry, wildfire, urbanisation, and shifting agriculture, a decision tree model (recursive partitioning model) was used. Tree cover loss was defined as the disturbance of a stand or the complete removal of the tree cover canopy at the pixel scale of the satellite image. This loss can occur due to human activities, such as forestry practices like timber harvesting and deforestation, as well as natural causes like disease or storm damage.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof David Rojas-Rueda
Healthcare Sector Emissions
Quality healthcare requires the use of energy, goods, services, and infrastructure, which consumes resources and currently contributes to GHG emissions and air pollution. Delivering low-GHG-emitting and sustainable health systems is essential in a world that meets the goals of the Paris Agreement and enables a healthy future. Under the WHO’s ATACH, 74 countries committed to developing net zero-emission or sustainable, low-GHG health systems, and 151 countries signed the UAE declaration on Climate and Health,15 committing to promoting steps to curb emissions in the health sector.HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2021, healthcare sector-related GHG emissions were 9.5% higher than 2020 and 36% higher than 2016, and associated air pollution contributed to 4.6 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) in 2021
DATA SOURCES
1. EXIOBASE v3.8.3 model, year 2021.
2. Global Health Expenditure Database, 2021. World Health Organization.
3. UN Sustainable Development Goal Indicator 3.8.1: Coverage of Essential Health Services, 2021. Global Health Observatory, World Health Organization.
CAVEATS
Since only total health expenditure data is available from World Health Organization, expenditures could not be separated as demand vs investment. Multi-Regional Input Output models are built from aggregated top-down statistical data – as such results do not reflect individual healthcare systems’ power purchase agreements for renewable energy or offsetting activities. Results do not include direct emissions of waste anaesthetic gases from clinical operations or emissions from metered-dose inhalers since these are not currently reported consistently in national emissions inventories.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator combines an environmentally-extended multi-region input-output (EE-MRIO) model with national healthcare expenditure data to develop the world’s most comprehensive and regularly-updated monitoring system on healthcare-sector GHG emissions. It includes direct emissions from healthcare facilities as well as emissions from the consumption of goods and services supplied by other sectors.
DATA DOWNLOAD
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Matthew Eckelman, Dr Jodi D. Sherman
Economics and finance
The data here works to track the financial and economic dimensions of the effects of climate change, and of mitigation efforts required to respond to these changes. Indicators here monitor the economic costs of climate change and its drivers, as well as the investments and economic tools being deployed to transition to a low-carbon economy.

4.1.1 Economic Losses due to Climate-Related Extreme Events
In addition to direct health impacts, extreme weather events can also damage health centres, impede access to health services, and cause economic losses that can undermine the social determinants of health. This indicator uses data provided by Swiss Re to track the economic losses from extreme weather events.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, weather-related extreme events caused US$ 212 billion in global economic losses.
DATA SOURCES
1. Sigma Catastrophe Database. Swiss Re Institute.
2. World Economic Outlook Databases. International Monetary Fund.
3. International Finance Statistics. International Monetary Fund.
CAVEATS
Only events with measurable economic losses above the threshold levels are included. Where these are available, data is taken from official institutions, but where not, estimates are calculated. In cases where only low-quality information is available, such as a description of the number of homes damaged or destroyed, assumptions on value and costs are made.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks the total annual economic losses (insured and uninsured) that result from climate-related extreme events, referring to an event caused by natural forces. The scale of the losses resulting from a weather-related event depends not only on the severity, but also on man-made structures such as building design or the efficiency of the disaster response and control in the affected region. Total economic loses reported by Swiss Re are all the financial losses directly attributable to a major event – damage to buildings, infrastructure , vehicles etc – and also includes losses doe to buisness interruptions as a direct consequence of the property damage.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.1.2 Costs of Heat-related Mortality
In 2023, record-breaking high temperatures resulted in record-breaking heat-related mortality and associated economic losses globally. This indicator calculates the monetised value of heat-related deaths by combining data from indicator 1.1.5 with the value of a statistical life-year (VSLY).
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The average annual monetised value of global heat-related mortality for 2019-2023 was US$ 199 billion, an increase of 179% from 2000-2004
DATA SOURCES
1. Heat-realted mortality data from indicator 1.1.5.
2. Population, Total. World Bank Group.
3. GDP per capita (USD). World Bank Group.
4. Inflation rate, 2023. World Bank Group.
5. Gross domestic product (GDP). Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
6. Mortality Risk Valuation in Environment, Health and Transport Policies, 2012. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
7. World Health Organization methods and data sources for global burden of disease estimates 2000-2015, 2017. World Health Organization.
CAVEATS
Inequality embedded within the economic costs of heat-related mortalities across different social groups are not captured in this indicator due to lack of data. Additionally, this indicator only considers the direct costs from mortalities of older populations, ignoring the potential costs that might derived from it.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses the value of statistical life-year (VSLY) to monetise the years of life lost caused by heat-relates mortality data taken from indicator 1.1.5. VSLY measures how people value the discounted years of remaining life and can reflect age structure differences. It uses a fixed ratio of the VSLY to gross domestic product per capita for each country for years 2000-2023. The value of mortality is presented as a dollar amount.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Wenjia Cai, Dr Shihui Zhang
4.1.3 Loss of Earnings from Heat-Related Labour Capacity Reduction
The loss of labour capacity due to heat exposure (indicator 1.1.3) leads to income losses, potentially harming the health and wellbeing of workers, their families, communities, and national economies. This indicator combines data from indicator 1.1.3 with the International Labour Organization (ILO)’s wage data to quantify the potential loss of earnings resulting from heat-related labour capacity loss.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, the global potential income loss from labour capacity reduction due to extreme heat was US$ 835 billion.
DATA SOURCES
1. Potential working hours lost data from indicator 1.1.3.
2. International Statistics Database, International Labour Organization (ILO).
3. International Finance Statistics. International Monetary Fund.
4. World Economic Outlook Database. International Monetary Fund.
5. Country and Lending Groups. World Bank.
CAVEATS
Results reflect potential loss of earnings in formal paid sectors, rather than actual loss, and do not include informal and unpaid labour that is significant in many countries. Such activites could include domestic work which disproportionately falls on women and small-scale agriculture. There are data gaps in the International Labour Organization Earnings and Labour Income dataset for the years studied for each country and thus several assumptions were incorporated in order to fill these data gaps. The indicator does not measure time off work actually taken.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator combines data from indicator 1.1.3 on heat-related labour capacity loss, in terms of work hours lost (WHLs), at country scale across four sectors (services, manufacturing, constructon, and agriculture) with data on average earnings per hour per country, sector, and year. The total lost earnings are expressed as a percentage of the country’s GDP in each relevant year.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.1.4 Costs of the Health Impacts of Air Pollution
The millions of deaths associated with anthropogenic PM2.5 pollution annually (indicator 3.2.1) result in economic losses, both of which can be reduced through robust mitigation. Building on indicator 3.2.1, this indicator places a monetised value on the years of lost life (YLLs) from exposure to anthropogenic ambient PM2.5.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The monetised value of premature mortality due to air pollution reached a record high in 2021, amounting to US$ 4.95 trillion, 14.0% above 2016 levels
DATA SOURCES
1. Ambient air pollution death data from indicator 3.2.1.
2. World Population Prospects 2022. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
3. World Economic Outlook. International Monetary Fund.
CAVEATS
Inequality embedded within the economic costs of heat-related mortalities across different social groups are ignored in this indicator due to lack of data. This indicator only considered the direct costs from mortalities of older populations, ignoring the potential costs that might derived from it. Some countries have been excluded from the anaylsis due to lack of individual characterisation in the GAINS model used to calculate YLLs.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator estimates the change in Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to anthropogenic PM2.5 for 140 countries between 2007 and 2021. It combines data from indicator 3.2.1 and the value of statistical life-year (VSLY) estimated for the member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) using a fixed ratio of the value of VSLY to gross domestic product (gross domestic product) per capita. The value of mortality is presented a dollar amount.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman, Dr Gregor Kiesewetter
4.2.1 Employment in Renewable Energy and Fossil Fuel Industries
Employees in the fossil fuel sector generally face greater health risks than those in the renewable energy sector. Oil and gas extraction processes expose workers to various hazardous chemicals and particulate matter, which can cause long-term health effects on the skin, eyes, brain, nervous system, respiratory and gastrointestinal systems. The renewable energy sector thus presents new and healthier local job opportunities. Using data from the International Renewable Energy Agency and IBISWorld, this indicator compares employment in renewable energy and fossil fuel extraction.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Global direct employment in fossil fuel extraction increased by 0.4% in 2022 to 11.8 million. The same year, direct and indirect employment in renewable energy grew 8.1% to 13.7 million employees
DATA SOURCES
1. Renewable Energy and Jobs: Annual Review 2022. International Renewable Energy Agency.
2. Global Oil & Gas Exploration & Production Industry Report, 2022. IBISWorld.
3. Global Coal Mining Industry Report, 2024. IBISWorld.
CAVEATS
Fossil fuel extraction values include direct employment, whereas renewable energy jobs include direct and indirect employment (e.g., equipment manufacturing), with the exception of hydropower.
Historic IBISWorld data can change noticeably from year to year if a new analyst changes the methodology.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator draws on International Renewable Energy Agency and IBISWorld to track the number of jobs in renewable and fossil fuel extraction sectors, respectively.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.2.2 Compatibility of Fossil Fuel Company Strategies With the Paris Agreement
To limit global heating and avoid the most harmful impacts of climate change, oil and gas (O&G) emissions need to be reduced dramatically. This indicator assesses the alignment of O&G companies’ production strategies with Paris Agreement goals, using the Rystad Energy database of projected production based on current commercial activities, regardless of pledges.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The strategies of the 114 largest oil and gas companies as of March 2024, put them on track to exceed their share of GHG emissions consistent with limiting global heating to 1.5°C by 189% in 2040, up from 173% in March 2023
DATA SOURCES
1. World Energy Outlook 2023. International Energy Agency.
2. UCube Database, 2024. Rystad Energy.
3. World Energy Balances 2022. International Energy Agency.
CAVEATS
Even if oil and gas firms follow the Paris-compliant pathways outlined here, there is still a substantial chance that temperature targets will be exceeded. Oil and gas firms are assumed here to have constant market shares. This assumption is typical for this sort of analysis but can be expected to introduce errors for at least some firms that increase over time. These uncertainties are likely to increase over time, meaning projections in the long-term are less certain than in the shorter-term.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
The indicator tracks the gap between the projected production of oil and gas companies based on their actual activities, and production trajectories consistent with the Paris target of 1.5°C of warming. The indicator is expressed as a percentage of the projected production that each company is above or below a pathway consistent with the Paris targets. If the indicator value is positive, the company projection is above the climate-consistent plan, and therefore not consistent with the climate target. The indicator analyses both international, publicly traded oil companies (IOCs) and national oil companies (NOCs), which in many cases have larger production volumes than IOCs but are subject to less public or shareholder scrutiny.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.2.3 Stranded Assets from the Energy Transition
On a path that supports a healthy future and keeps within the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement, many of today’s fossil fuel assets must cease operating. This must often occur well before their economic life ends, thus stranding the remaining capital investment. Continuing to invest in fossil fuels therefore not only hampers mitigation efforts and causes millions of deaths each year from exposure to air pollution, but also harms the economy by increasing the economic value of stranded assets.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The cumulative value of current assets in the global coal-fired power generation sector expected to be stranded between 2025 and 2034 will reach US$ 164.5 billion
DATA SOURCES
Main data sources include:
1. Building an open guide to the world’s energy system. Global Energy Monitor.
2. Geographic information. Open Street Map.
3. SSP Database (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways) – Version 2.0 hosted by IIASA. IIASA.
4. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) database (version 2.0). IIASA.
5. Synthesis report of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), 2023. IPCC.
6. Overnight Cost of Capital (OCC) for coal-fired power plants from variety of sources
Full data sources can be found in the 2024 report appendix.
CAVEATS
This indicator only considered stranded assets of coal-fired power plants in the power generation sector. The analysis includes only stranded assets generated by existing coal-fired units and does not include planned units.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
Using data from Global Energy Monitor on nearly 14,000 coal-fired units, this indicator tracks the annual value and spatial distribution of current coal-fired power generation assets that would be stranded under the carbon allowances limits of the 1.5°C goal. Carbon allowance limits for 2019-2100 are calculated based on fairness principles of historical responsibility, capability to pay, and equal per capita convergence.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Chi Zhang, Prof Wenjia Cai, Bo Li
4.2.4 Country Preparedness for the Transition to Net Zero
The transition towards a net zero GHG economy is essential for a healthy future. However, this requires major structural changes, that can yield both profound health benefits and unintended harms. Countries reliant on fossil fuel exports or with emissions-intensive energy production, manufacturing, transportation, and construction, with a large portion of the labour force employed in such activities, and high social inequality face high transition risks. This indicator assesses countries’ transition risk through a complex index that incorporates 25 sub-indicators that monitor institutional performance, weighted to derive a final preparedness score ranging from 0 and 1.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, all Low HDI countries had transition preparedness scores below the global average, while 93% of Very High HDI countries had scores above average
DATA SOURCES
Composite indicators are based on numerous input factors, including:
1. World Economic Forum indicators, World Economic Forum.2. Human Development Reports, United Nations Development Programme.
3. World Development Indicators, World Bank.
4. Availability of finance for the energy transition. Bloomberg.
Full data sources can be found in the 2024 report appendix.
CAVEATS
The indicator in its current form does not reflect opportunities arising from the low-carbon transition, particularly those emerging from access to non-renewable resources vital to the transition, such as critical minerals. It also overlooks different aspects of access to renewable energy sources such as security, reliability, and flexibility. This omission is primarily attributed to the lack of reliable data.
This indicator is new to the 2024 report
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator assesses countries’ transition risk through a complex index that incorporates 25 sub-indicators that monitor institutional performance (e.g., absence of political violence and terrorism, governmental effectiveness), economic situation (e.g.: macroeconomic stability, availability of finance for the transition, GNI per capita), societal (e.g.: proportion of labour force in highly exposed sectors, human capital), and technological factors (e.g., technology absorption, carbon intensity of manufacturing), weighted to derive a final preparedness score ranging from 0 and 1.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Denitsa Angelova, Dr Nadia Ameli
4.2.5 Production-based and Consumption-based Attribution of CO2 and PM2.5 Emissions
Due to international trade, the consumption of imported goods and services in one country can contribute to GHG emissions and air pollution in foreign producing countries. This indicator quantifies countries’ contribution to CO2 and PM2.5 emissions, both production-based accounting and consumption-based accounting.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The Very High HDI country group remained the only group with higher consumption-based than production-based emissions for both CO2 and PM2.5 in 2022, with differences accounting for 3.7% and 6.1% of global total emissions, respectively
DATA SOURCES
1. EXIOBASE 3: Developing a Time Series of Detailed Environmentally Extended Multi-Regional Input-Output Tables, 2018. stadler, K et al.
2. Global Carbon Project 2021, 2021. Friedlingstein, P et al.
3. World Bank Open Data database. World Bank Group.
4. Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution Interactions and Synergies (GAINS). International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis.
5. Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR) database. European Commission.
CAVEATS
GAINS process emissions are only distributed across MRIO sectors that can be clearly identified with a particular process. Trucking-related emissions are distributed among all sectors based on diesel consumption. Simplifications and assumptions made during the emission inventory disaggregation stage may bring uncertainties into the results.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses an environmentally extended multi-region input-output (EE-MRIO) model to quantify countries’ contribution to CO2 and PM2.5 emissions, examining production-based accounting (where physical emissions occur) and consumption-based accounting (allocating emissions to countries based on their consumption of goods and services).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Kehan He, Prof Zhifu Mi, Dr Fabian Wagner
4.3.1 Clean Energy Investment
Investing in clean energy is essential for both mitigating climate change and for reducing air pollution. Reaching net-zero emissions can lead to economic growth, which can, in turn, lead to further investment in clean energy. Drawing on data from the IEA, this indicator monitors trends in global investment in energy supply, electricity grids and energy efficiency.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Global clean energy investment grew 10% in 2023 to US$ 1.9 trillion, exceeding fossil fuel investment by 73%.
DATA SOURCES
1. World Energy Investment, 2024. International Energy Agency.
CAVEATS
Investment estimates are derived from International Energy Agency data for energy demand, supply and trade, and estimates of unit capacity costs. Other areas of expenditure, including operation and maintenance, research and development, financing costs, mergers and acquisitions or public markets transactions, are not included.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator draws on data from the annual International Energy Agency World Energy Investment to track energy supply investment. Key categories of investment are clean energy; fossil fuels; power sector; energy efficiency; and other supply, which includes investment in coal, natural gas, oil, and renewable energy supply for non-electricity purposes. It also uses the International Energy Agency data to assess 7 categories of energy investment: hydropower, bioenergy, other renewables (include solar and wind), nuclear power, energy efficiency, electricity networks and storage and fossil fuels.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.3.2 Funds Divested from Fossil Fuels
Maintaining investments in fossil fuel companies contributes to their expansion and increases the risk of assets becoming stranded as the world shifts to a net-zero future. By reducing financial interests in the fossil fuel industry, divestment both reduces the social licence of fossil fuel companies and hedges against investors’ risk of losses due to so-called stranded assets in an increasingly decarbonising world. This indicator uses data provided by stand.earth to track the value of funds divested from fossil fuels.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
Between 2008 and the end of 2023, US$ 40.67 trillion was committed to fossil fuel divestment, with healthcare institutions accounting for US$ 54.3 billion
DATA SOURCES
1. Global Fossil Fuel Divestment Commitments Database. Stand.earth.
CAVEATS
Data on the number of institutions that have divested, and the value of their assets is dependent on institutions reporting this information to Stand.earth.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks the total global value of funds divested from fossil fuels, and the value of divested funds coming from health institutions, using self-reported data from stand.earth.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.3.3 Net Value of Fossil Fuel Subsidies and Carbon Prices
Fossil fuel subsidies encourage their use and hinder the transition to healthier options, whereas carbon pricing promotes this transition. The energy crisis triggered by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, caused a sharp increase in international energy prices. With most countries’ energy systems still heavily reliant on fossil fuels, most resorted to heavy fossil fuel subsidies to control local energy prices. This indicator calculates net economy-wide average carbon prices and revenues.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
84% of the 86 countries reviewed had a net-negative carbon price in 2022, generating a record net subsidy to fossil fuels of US$ 1.4 trillion
DATA SOURCES
1. Energy Subsidies – Tracking the Impact of Fossil Fuel Subsidies. International Energy Agency.
2. OECD Inventory of Support Measures for Fossil Fuels. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
3. World Bank Carbon Pricing Dashboard. World Bank Group.
4. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Energy, 1751-2020. International Energy Agency.
5. Global Health Expenditure Database. World Health Organization.
6. World Economic Outlook Databases. International Monetary Fund.
CAVEATS
The economy-wide net carbon price was derived by dividing fossil fuel subsidies and carbon pricing revenues by total CO2 emissions. This fits well with the subsidies, as these are for fossil fuels, the principal source of CO2. However, some of the carbon pricing instruments from which the revenue was assessed are not only for fossil fuel combustion but apply to other sectors and non-CO2 gases. The indicator is strongly dependent on the reliability of the main datasets from the IEA, OECD, and World Bank. It is possible that data on individual countries may not be fully comprehensive due to reporting errors, lack of information or other issues, as indeed is acknowledged by OECD.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator calculates net economy-wide average carbon prices and revenues, comparing carbon prices and monetary fossil fuel subsidies, across 87 countries responsible for 93% of global CO2 emissions. The calculations are based on the value of overall fossil fuel subsidies (taking into account both budgetary transfers and tax expenditures), the revenue from carbon pricing mechanisms, and the total CO2 emissions of the economy. Positive results indicate a net tax on CO2 emissions, while negative results indicate a net subsidy for fossil fuels. All money values are expressed in real 2023 US$.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Daniel Scamman
4.3.4 Fossil Fuel and Green Bank Lending
Redirecting finance away from fossil fuels and towards equitable deployment of low-GHG emission technologies and infrastructures is essential for a just transition. This indicator uses Bloomberg data to monitor fossil fuel and green sector debt provided or facilitated by banks.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
After a decade of growth, green sector lending declined by 8% from 2021 to 2022. Meanwhile, fossil fuel lending fell by 14%.
DATA SOURCES
1. Fossil fuel and green bonds and loans. 2024. Bloomberg.
2. Net Zero Banking Alliance, February 2024.
CAVEATS
This data only represents a subset of investments provided by the financial sector – equity investments are not covered by the data, nor are contributions from other financial actors such as institutional investors. In addition, the labelling of a debt as ‘green’ is reliant on the classification by the issuer, which makes it susceptible to green-washing as there is no independent verification of the classification.
This indicator is new to 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
Data for bank lending to the fossil fuel and green sectors was taken from a proprietary Bloomberg dataset covering the global debt market. Fossil fuel lending is defined as being directed towards exploration, production, operation and marketing activities in oil and gas. Green lending is self-identitfied by the issuer as funding for a project or activity with an environmenal or sustainability-oriented goal. Data is provided as total loans provided and bonds underwritten per bank per year in USD by 920 banks from 2010 to 2022, augmented by identifying each bank’s ownership status (public or private).
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Jamie Rickman, Dr Nadia Ameli
Public and Political Engagement in Health and Climate Change
Public and political engagement underpins the foundations of the world’s collective response to climate change, with reductions in global emissions at the speed required by the Paris Agreement depending on engagement from all sectors of society. The indicators in this section track the links between health and climate change in the media, national governments, the corporate sector, and the broader public.

Media Coverage of Health and Climate Change
Newspapers play an important role in influencing public engagement with health and climate change, and setting and reflecting the political agenda. This indicator tracks coverage of health and climate change in 66 newspapers across 37 countries.HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 24% of all newspaper articles on climate change mention health, a slight decline from 2022
DATA SOURCES
1. Nexis Uni database.
2. Factiva database.
3. ProQuest LLC database.
4. People’s Daily official website.
CAVEATS
In developing the search strategy for the 2020 and 2021 Lancet Countdown report, it was found that a significant portion of articles may mention both climate change and health but do not engage with them as integrated issues. Including this coverage remains important as it brings both sets of issues – health and climate change – onto the public agenda and into public awareness.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks coverage of health and climate change in 66 newspapers across 37 countries using a method based on keyword searches of relevant newspaper databases. The sample includes widely-read newspapers in English, German, Portuguese, and Spanish, covering all six WHO regions and at least one newspaper in each HDI group. The second part of this indicator looks specifically at the media coverage of health and climate change in China’s People’s Daily.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Lucy McAllister, Dr Pete Lampard, Dr Olivia Pearman
Prof Wenjia Cai
Individual Engagement in Health and Climate Change
Important social actors in driving action and change are individuals. This indicator measures individual engagement with health and climate change through searches on the online encyclopaedia Wikipedia – a major source of trusted information globally, and one of the most visited websites in the world.HEADLINE FINDINGS
Although individual engagement with health and climate change remained low in 2023, views of Wikipedia articles on the human health effects of climate change increased by 40% from 2022
DATA SOURCES
1. Wikimedia Dumps. Wikimedia Foundation.
CAVEATS
The data is not geo-referenced, so it is not possible to infer the location of page visits. Only English Wikipedia pages were considered in the analysis (approximately 50% of total Wikipedia pages), and while they are accessed globally, it is biased towards English-speaking countries.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks individuals’ clicks between an article on health and one on climate change, and vice versa (‘clickstream activity’), focusing on English-language Wikipedia, which represents around 50% of global traffic to Wikipedia. It reports “streams of clicks”: how individuals get to a Wikipedia article and what links they click on. This is reported on a monthly basis and in pairs of resources; the first being where the visit came from, the second which page was visited. This gives an indicator of monthly-level global attention towards one issue (if both articles are representative of the same issue) or two issues (if articles come from different domains, such as climate change and health). By looking at climate change–health article pairs, an indicator of attention towards climate change consequences for human health over time can be generated. Data used is from 2018 to 2023.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Simon Munzert
5.3.1 Scientific Articles on Health and Climate Change
Peer-reviewed scientific journals are the primary source of high-quality research that provides evidence used by the media, the government, and the public. Funding for research on the links between health and climate change has grown in recent years, contributing to greater scientific engagement and understanding reflected in a rapidly expanding scientific literature base. This indicator tracks scientific engagement with health and climate change in peer-reviewed journals.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
The number of scientific papers investigating the links between health and climate change increased by 7.4% in 2023 compared with 2022, reaching its highest recorded level.
DATA SOURCES
1. OpenAlex database.
CAVEATS
The use of machine learning means that there will be some uncertainty as to the number of relevant documents. The quality of the data and the specifics of its content are not assessed; however, with the outputs all published in peer-reviewed journals, there is a de facto quality check. For this reason, the indicator does not cover grey literature.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator uses a machine-learning assisted approach to monitor and classify peer-reviewed academic articles on health and climate change, relevant literature was identified and classified according to its subject. This allows for a more granular picture of the research landscape, including developments across major domains of research (mitigation, adaptation, impacts), the health impacts covered, locations studied, as well as patterns of authorship.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Max Callaghan, Prof Jan C. Minx
5.3.2 Scientific Engagement on the Health Impacts of Climate Change
Increasing the understanding of health impacts of anthropogenic climate change is essential to characterise health risks, and design efficient measures to protect and promote health. This indicator tracks the number of scientific studies of the health impacts of changes in climate variables, in cases in which the changes in those variables can be attributed to anthropogenic climate change.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
31% of the 4662 studies published on health impacts of climate variables in 2023 focus on cases in which changes in climate variables can be attributed to human influence – up by 117% from 2016
DATA SOURCES
1. OpenAlex database.
CAVEATS
It is important to acknowledge that although English is the lingua franca in scientific literature, searching for studies in English may result in additional gaps in coverage, which it is hoped can be addressed with multilingual searches in future versions of the indicator.
The method here cannot fully attribute the health outcomes identified in each study to human influence on the climate. Rather, it shows where the health outcomes of changes in climate variables coincide geographically with changes in those variables that can be attributed to human influence.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator identifies literature, classifying studies according to the climate drivers and health impacts studied, and locating where such impacts are studied. Using observational data and climate models, it identifies the subset of the literature which finds health impacts driven by climate variables, that are located in areas where changes in those variables can be attributed to human influence on the climate. These studies are referred to here as partially attributable impact studies. The indicator links studies on climate impacts with data from climate models and the observational record, shedding light on attribution across the whole chain from human influence on the climate, to the health impacts of climate change. The result is a new cross-working-group indicator that characterises the available evidence from scientific studies on attributable climate impacts on human health.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Max Callaghan, Prof Jan C. Minx
5.4.1 Government Engagement
Engagement by governments and political leaders is central to delivering climate change action that protects human health. The first part of this indicator monitors references to health and climate change in UNGD speeches – the annual UN General Debate (UNGD) provides a global forum for national governments to address the UN General Assembly and discuss priority issues in world politics requiring international action. The second part of this indicator tracks engagement with health and climate change in the NDCs – as the major policy instrument of the Paris Agreement, countries are required to periodically report more ambitious contributions towards the international climate commitments with updated NDCs.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
In 2023, 35% of governments mentioned health and climate change in their annual UN General Debate statements compared to 50% in 2022
DATA SOURCES
1. Understanding State Preferences With Text As Data: Introducing the UN General Debate Corpus, 2017. Batuor, A et al.
2. Nationally Determined Contributions Registry. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
CAVEATS
The results present a somewhat conservative estimate of high-level political engagement with the intersection of climate change and health. There may be examples of governments referring to climate change and health but not the direct linkages between the two and there may be examples of governments discussing the health impacts of climate change in their United Nations General Debate speeches but the distance between the climate change term and the health term exceeds 25 words. The analyses are based on a narrow range of search terms, which excludes reference to many of indirect links between climate change and health.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator tracks government engagement in health and climate change by monitoring references to health and climate change in UNGD speeches. The second part of this indicator tracks engagement with health and climate change in the NDCs. The indicator is based on the application of natural language processing.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Niheer Dasandi, Prof Slava Jankin, Dr Pete Lampard
5.4.2 Engagement by International Organisations
International organisations (e.g., UN agencies, international and regional financial institutions, and supranational bodies such as the EU and African Union) are increasingly at the forefront of action on climate change. This indicator tracks engagement on the health co-benefits of climate mitigation on the official X (formerly Twitter) accounts of international organisations (IOs), which remains a key platform for their public communication.
HEADLINE FINDINGS
International organisations focused on climate mitigation and adaptation referred to the health co-benefits of climate mitigation in a record 20% of their X posts in 2023
DATA SOURCES
1. Geolocated X posts (formerly Tweets) collected via the X Streaming Application Programming Interface.
CAVEATS
This indicator works with a limited predefined set of international organisations, and search terms could be missing parts of co-benefits discussions.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
The indicator measures engagement with the health co-benefits of climate mitigation using a dataset of 50,000 English-language tweets covering 41 IOs that have an operational focus on climate mitigation or adaptation across wide-ranging sectors (e.g., trade and finance, development and disaster risk management, or food and agriculture). An indicator of engagement intensity was developed as a monthly proportion of tweets containing at least one term from the search term list in relation to the total number of tweets by that IO. With the dataset of IO’s tweets, a search through the text of each tweet was performed to identify if they discuss co-benefits.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Dr Olga Gasparyan, Prof Slava Jankin, Prof Cathryn Tonne
Corporate Sector Engagement in Health and Climate Change
Corporations have substantial influence over efforts to tackle climate change; coporate engagement with health and climate change is therefore critical in the transition to a healthy future. A recent report found that 57 public and private corporations produced 80% of all global emissions between 2016 and 2022. Over 24,000 companies from 168 countries have signed up to the UN Global Compact (UNGC) making it the largest global corporate sustainability initiative. While the UNGC has been criticised for enabling so-called greenwashing, recent evidence suggests companies’ involvement in the UNGC is associated with improved environmental and social responsibility.HEADLINE FINDINGS
Corporate sector engagement with health and climate change increased to its highest level in 2023 with 60% of companies referring to the health dimensions of climate change in their UN Global Compact reports
DATA SOURCES
1. Communication on Progress (CoP) portal. United Nations Global Compact.
CAVEATS
This analysis here is based on a narrow range of search terms based on keywords, which excludes reference to many of indirect links between climate change and health, and between the intersection and other terms such as gender, covid, and inequality. Reports may also discuss indirect connections, such as the effect of climate change on agriculture, however, these are not included here. Therefore, the results present a somewhat conservative estimate of high corporate engagement with the intersection of climate change and health.
This indicator was last updated in October 2024
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION
This indicator measures corporate sector engagement by tracking references to health and climate change in the annual Communication of Progress (GCCOP) reports that companies submit. Data was extracted from a total of 50.016 reports available from companies based in 145 countries.
INDICATOR AUTHORS
Prof Slava Jankin, Dr Ran Zhang
